INORGANIC CHEM NOTES

Lrcture notes in P’Chem. Inorganic Chem
Compiled by: MBTM
Mid-term coverage

Compounds are made of two or more different kinds of atoms.
Examples: water, sugar, alcohol, common table salt, starch (typical compounds)
Classification of compounds:
1. Binary- a combination of two(2) elements at a definite proportion and composition.
Ex. Na, Cl, combined to form NaCl; or two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen to form water.
2. Ternary - a combination of three (3) elements at a definite composition and proportion.
Ex. One part of Na, one part of S and a four (4)parts of oxygen, combine to form sodium sulfate
3. Quarternary – a combination of four(4) elements at a definite composition and proportion.
Ex. Four (4) parts of K, 1 part of Fe, 6 parts of C, 6 parts of N, combine to form potassium ferrocyanide or two(2) parts of N, 8 parts of H, one part of S and 4 parts of oxygen combine to form ammonium sulfate compound.

Compounds maybe classified according to form:
1. Isomorphous- if different compounds crystallize in the same form such as potassium permanganate and potassium chlorate, they are said to be isomorphous and the phenomenon is isomorphism.
2. Polymorphous- compounds, forming 2 or more different types of crystals,
Example: C is said to a polymorphous and the phenomenon is polymorphism.
3. Metamorphous- the same compound but they can be changed into one form to another.
Example: chalk, when change to marble, having the same chemical formula as calcium carbonate
4. Isomeric- is a class of organic compounds in which compounds have the same molecular formula, but differs in physical and chemical properties. The phenomenon is called isomerism.
Example: ethyl alcohol and dimethyl ether.
5. Polymer – a class of organic compounds in which two or more compounds have the same percentage of elements present in the compound. If the molecules of the compound is taken twice it is termed as monomer, if more than twice it is termed as polymer. The phenomenon is called polymerism.
Example:formaldehyde (HCHO) and paraformadelhyde (HCHO).
Compounds maybe classified in accordance to its behavior as acid,bases and salts.

Acids – is defined as a compound,which yields hydrogen ions in solution,taste sour,changes blue litmus paper to red, liberates hydrogen when acted upon by metals like Fe, ,Zn, and Al, conducts electric current.All acids contains in their molecules one or more hydrogen atoms replaceable by a metal.
a. acid anhydrides- are non-metallic oxides which form acids upon combination with water,as carbon dioxide,sulfur dioxide,etc…
b. oxyacids- acids which contain oxygen in their molecules

Nomenclature of acids:
All binary acids have a prefix of” hydro” and suffix of”ic”.
Ex.HCL as Hydrochloric acid; HBR as Hydrobromic acid.Oxyacids has a different way of nomenclature. It is baesde upon the case of ternary compounds. Ex. Sulfur in sulfuric acid.

Formation of Acids:
1.Volatile acids are prepared by treatment of salts with non-volatile acids, thus: 2NaCl plus sulfuric acids equals sodium sulfate plus 2HCL.
2. Interaction between H and other non-metallic element. 2 hydrogen plus 2 HCL.
3.Interaction between an acid anhydride with water. Phosphorus trioxide plus 2 water equals the phosphorous acid.
4.hydrlysis of salts:
a. sodium sulfate plus water equal sodium hydroxide plus sulfuric acid.

Classification of Acids:
Acid maybe classified in accordance to their strength as weak and strong acids. The weak acid generally are those which are of organic in nature. Ex. Hac, while the strong ones are those which are of inorganic in nature, yhey are called as mineral acids, such as hydrochloric acid, Nitric acid ,sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid.
Acids maybe also classified in accordance to their number of hydrogen ions present within the compound.
1. monobasis acid- containing one H ion ex. HCL.
2. dibasis acid- containing 2 H ions. Ex. Sulfuric acid, tartaric acid, oxalic acid,carbonic acid.Etc.
3. tribasis acid- containing 3 H ions, Ex. Phosphoric acid,arsenious acid, etc.

pH value:
very often expressed in terms of pH values. The pH value of any solution is the logarithm to the base 10 of the reciprocal of the H ion concentration. Expressed mathematically as pH=log 1/H. thus a solution containing 10^5 mole of H per liter, has a pH value equal to 5 neutral solutions, usually expressed as pH-7; whereas acidic, below pH-5 and basis pH-10

Buffer solutions:
A buffer solution is a solution which has the property of maintaining a practically constant pH value, buffer solutions are usually mixture of a weak acid and one of its salts.

BASES:
Contain an OH radical,replaceable by any acid radical, changes color of red litmus paper to blue. Aqueous solution of bases feel soapy.

Nomenclature:
The naming of the compounds are simple. The metal present in the formula is mentioned first, followed by hydrxide. Ex. NaOH-Sodium Hydroxide, Potassium Hydroxide.

Classifications:
Bases maybe classified in accordance to its activity as strong or weak bases. Ex. Of strong bases is KOH or NaOH. Ex. Of weak is Calcium Hydroxide or Bariun Hydroxide,etc.
Bases maybe classified in accordance to the number of CH persent within the formula as:
1. monobasic base- containing only one OH radical in the formula. Ex. NaOH; KOH
2. diacid base- containing 2 (OH) radical in the formula. Ex. CaOH, BaOH
3. triacid base- containing 3 (OH) radical within the formula. Ex. AlOH3
Formation of bases:
1. bases are formed by the action of metal upon water 2 sodium plus 2 water equals 2 sodium hydrogen plus hydrogen.
2. interaction between a metallic oxide and water. Ammonia plus water equals ammonium hydroxide.
3. hydrolysis of salt:
sodium sulfate plus water equals sodium hydroxide plus sulfuric acid

Activity of acids and bases:
1. strong acids and bases are active acids and bases. They are completely ionized in solution.
2. weak acids and bases are inactive acids and bases. They are slightly ionized in solution.
Properties of acids and bases in terms of the theory of ionization.
1.The chemical properties of acids are due to H ions.
a. strong acids react rapidly with metals like Zn, while weak acid react slowly.
b. Strong acids have a decided effect on indicators, while weak acids have only a slight effect.
c. Strong acids displace weak acid from their salts and completely neutralize strong bases.
2.The chemical properties of bases are due to the OH ions:
a. strong bases have weaker effect on indicators than weak bases, produce in solution.
b. Strong bases displace weak bases from their salts.


SALTS:
Defined as highly ionized substances w/c yield neither H+ ions or OH- ions
The reaction of salts and water which forms acids and bases is called hydrolysis.
Nomenclature:
The naming of compounds is derived from the acids:salts which of oxygen acids whose name terminates in “ous” has s termination of “ite”. The name of the metal is mentoned first followed by the acid radical, but with an ending of ‘ite”.
Ex. The sodium salt of sulfurous acid is called Calcium Hypochlorite. The Ca salt of hypochlorous acid is called calcium hypochlorite. Salts, w/c derived from oxyacids whose name terminate in “ic” has a termination of ‘ate”. Ex. The Potassium salt,sulfuric acid is called potassium sulfate; the magnesium salt of nitric acid is called magnesium nitrate.
Binary salt, has their name derived from binary acids, the ending of binary acids is “ic”.
These salts derivatives terminate in “ide”. Ex. The sodium salt hydrochloric acid is called sodium chloride; or Ca salt of phosphoric acid is caleed Ca Phosphate.

Formation of Salts:
1. acids and bases or neutralization: HCL+NaOH___.>>>>NaCL+H2O
2. acids and metallic oxides: HNO3+ CaO>>>>Ca(NO3)2+ H2O
3. acid and certain metals: H2SO4+ Zn>>>>>ZnSO4+ H+
4. non-metallic o0xide and bases>>>>SO2+KOH>>>K2SO4+H2O
5. non-metallic oxide and metallic oxides: SiO2+CaO>>>Calcium Silicate
6. between two kinds of base>>>NaOH+Al(OH)3>>Sodium Aluminate
7. salts of weak bases and styrong bases:NH4CL+NaOH>>NaCL+NH$OH
8. 2 different salts (methathesis): BaCl+ Al2(SO4)3>>>Ba(SO4)3+AlCl3
Classification of Salts:
Salts maybe classified in accordance to the number of elements present:
1. Binary-containing a metal and a non-metal. Ex. Sodium chloride
2. Ternary salts-containing a metal and other 2 elements.
Ex. NaSO4
3. Quaternary- containing at least 4 elements
Ex. Ammonium Phosphate
Varieties of salts:
1. acid salts
2. basic salts
3. normal salts
4. complex salts
5. double salts
6. mixed salts
Neutralization: is the interaction between an equivalent amount of acid and base to form salt and water. The reverse of neutralization is hydrolysis.
Titration: the process of bringing about a well defined reaction by adding from a burette a measured amount of a dissolved reagent necessary to react with a known quantity of another substance under unvestigation in the presence of an indicator.
Standard solution: contains a definite quantity of solute per unit volume of the solution .
Indicators: are substances which change color when solution change from the basic to the acidic condition or vice versa. The change of the color of the indicators shows the neutral point in an acid action. Ex. Of indicator: phenolphthalein

Different Laws and Theories and hypothesis:
When a phenomenon is observed, an explanation to account for it is generally given. The attempt to answer how, why any phenomenon occurs, give rise to a hypothesis, which serves as the guide in the systematic study of the significance of natural phenomenon
Only, so long as it is not proven wrong. To make the hypothesis valid, it must not only agree with certain facts, but deductions from it be in harmony with all known facts,when the hypothesis become extensive,it becomes theory. A hypothesis may become a law of generalization, if on its basis a multiplicity of generalization w/c states briefly experimentally discovered facts. Hence, a “law” is limited by the fact it described.
1. Law of conservation of matter and energy
2. Law of conservation of mass
3. Law of indefinite proportions
4. The combining weights of an element
5. Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volume
6. Avogadro’s hypothesis
7. Dalton’s atomic theory
8. Dulong’s law
9. Henry’s law
10. Law of chatelier
11. Faraday’s law
12. Mass action law
13. Vant Hoff’s Principles
14. Graham’s law
15. Kinetic Molecular theory for gases

Mixture: is an aggregate of two or more different kinds of substance.
Kinds of Mixtures:
1. heterogeneous mixture- a combination of 2 or more substances, the components of which can be separated by mechanical means.
2. homogeneous- when the component cannot be separated by mechanical means, eg. Salts dissolved in water.